THREE VIEWS OF NATURE: HOW DESCRIPTION BECOMES PRESCRIPTION

Take the Emotional View: Yes, it is possible to describe the resemblance of animal behaviour to human behaviour. We can compare how a mother chimpanzee cuddles and breast feeds a bay chimp to what a human mother does. We can note how whales call and reply to each other like members of a human team working together. In the world of animals there are an enormous number of such comparisons to be made with human behaviour.

Or the Biological View: Yes: it is possible to describe, in terms of Evolutionary Theory, that we are closely related to chimpanzees. We are told, for example, that chimps and humans have 98.8 % of their DNA in common.

          Two forms of ape?

And then the Mechanical View: Yes: it is possible to describe both animals and humans in terms of chemistry, physics and machine-like behaviour. This view came from a debate begun in the 18th century, when Galvani discovered that frog legs twitched when touched with different metals. He assumed that the legs 'contained' electrical energy which was released by contact with the metal. Volta, however, contradicted this theory of 'animal electricity'. He maintained that the metal provided the electricity. This was just one form of a scientific dispute about the theory of 'vitalism': a theory that stated that organic matter possessed a certain vital force common to all living things, which was not present in inorganic matter. By the early 19th century, however, scientists had succeeded in synthesising 'organic' substances, like urea, from the reactions of 'inorganic' chemical compounds; thus showing that organic and inorganic matter obey the same chemical laws. Vitalism was dead and living matter could be seen as just complex chemistry.

        Galvani                                                                                                                                                                                                    Volta

But whichever of these views we take of describing humans, animals and their relationship; these view are just that: descriptive. If we decide to go further and choose one of them because we believe that it is right, correct, or ethical; then we are being prescriptive and are taking on a set of beliefs and values: just like the characteristics of a religion. We could give this religion many names, but which ever one we chose, it would be a belief that humans are defined and subject to something greater that comes from outside our humanity. The most common form of this is a belief in NATURE. (See more . . . )